An organic acid anhydride is an acid anhydride that is also an organic compound. An acid anhydride is a compound that has two chemical bond to the same oxygen atom.
One or both acyl groups of an acid anhydride may also be derived from another type of organic acid, such as sulfonic acid or a phosphonate. One of the acyl groups of an acid anhydride can be derived from an inorganic acid such as phosphoric acid. The mixed anhydride 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid, an intermediate in the formation of ATP via glycolysis,[Nelson, D. L.; Cox, M. M. "Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry" 3rd Ed. Worth Publishing: New York, 2000. .] is the mixed anhydride of 3-phosphoglyceric acid and phosphoric acid. are also classified as acid anhydrides.
Nomenclature
The nomenclature of organic acid anhydrides is derived from the names of the constituent carboxylic acids. In symmetrical acid anhydrides, only the prefix of the original carboxylic acid is used and the suffix "anhydride" is added. For most unsymmetrical acid anhydrides - also called mixed anhydrides- the prefixes from both acids reacted are listed before the suffix, e.g., benzoic propanoic anhydride.
Preparation
Organic acid anhydrides are prepared in industry by diverse means.
Acetic anhydride is mainly produced by the
carbonylation of
methyl acetate.
[Zoeller, J. R.; Agreda, V. H.; Cook, S. L.; Lafferty, N. L.; Polichnowski, S. W.; Pond, D. M. "Eastman Chemical Company Acetic Anhydride Process" Catalysis Today (1992), volume 13, pp.73-91. ] Maleic anhydride is produced by the oxidation of
benzene or
butane. Laboratory routes emphasize the dehydration of the corresponding acids. The conditions vary from acid to acid, but
acetic anhydride (itself an acid anhydride) is a common dehydrating agent as illustrated by the preparation of 3-nitrophthalic anhydride:
In addition to symmetrical, acyclic anhydrides, other classes are recognized as discussed in the following sections.
Mixed anhydrides
Mixed anhydrides have the formula RC(O)OC(O)R'. They tend to redistribute upon heating although acetic formic anhydride can be distilled at one atmosphere.
[
Those containing the acetyl group can be prepared using ketene as an acetylating agent:
]
- RCO2H + H2C=C=O → RCO2C(O)CH3
are also effective precursors as illustrated by the reaction with sodium formate:
- CH3C(O)Cl + HCO2Na → HCO2COCH3 + NaCl
Cyclic anhydrides
Cyclic compound anhydrides, a kind of a heterocycle, are derived from some dicarboxylic acids. Commercially important examples are those that form five- and six-membered rings, succinic anhydride, maleic anhydride]], and phthalic anhydride. Although these five-membered rings form readily, they can be opened.
Cyclic anhydrides with smaller rings are only of academic interest, e.g., malonic anhydride.
Dianhydrides and trianhydrides
The following xamples are mostly cyclic anhydrides:
-
1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride produced by dehydration of 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid.
-
naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride
-
1,2,4,5-Benzenetetracarboxylic dianhydride and 1,2,3,4-Benzenetetracarboxylic dianhydride
-
Mellitic anhydride, a trianhydride
These compounds are sometimes useful crosslinking agents.
Reactions
Acid anhydrides are a source of reactive acyl groups, and their reactions and uses resemble those of . For example, they are useful in Friedel-Crafts acylation of arenes (ArH):
Unlike acid halides, however, anhydrides do not react with Gilman reagents.
Acid anhydrides tend to be less electrophilic than . Usually only one acyl group is transferred per molecule of acid anhydride, which generall leads to a lower atom efficiency. The low cost, however, of acetic anhydride makes it a common choice for acetylation reactions.
Acylations with cyclic anhydrides can be distinctive vs the acyclic anhydrides, e.g. for the preparation of keto acids.
In reactions with alcohols and amines, the reactions afford equal amounts of the acylated product and the carboxylic acid:
The reactivity of anhydrides can be enhanced by using a catalytic amount of N,N-dimethylaminopyridine ("DMAP") or even pyridine.
First, DMAP ( 2) attacks the anhydride ( 1) to form a tetrahedral intermediate, which collapses to eliminate a carboxylate ion to give amide 3. This intermediate amide is more activated towards nucleophilic attack than the original anhydride, because dimethylaminopyridine is a better leaving group than a carboxylate. In the final set of steps, a nucleophile (Nuc) attacks 3 to give another tetrahedral intermediate. When this intermediate collapses to give the product 4, the pyridine group is eliminated and its aromaticity is restored – a powerful driving force, and the reason why the pyridine compound is a better leaving group than a carboxylate ion.
For prochiral cyclic anhydrides, the alcoholysis reaction can be conducted asymmetrically.
Applications and occurrence of acid anhydrides
File:Acetic anhydride2DACS.svg|Acetic anhydride is produced on a large scale for many applications.
File:Naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride.svg|Naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride, a building block for complex organic compounds, is an example of a dianhydride.
File:Maleic anhydride (vertical).svg|Maleic anhydride is a cyclic anhydride, widely used to make industrial coatings.
File:Adenosintriphosphat protoniert.svg|ATP in its protonated form is an anhydride derived from phosphoric acid.
File:1,3-Bisphosphoglyceric acid.svg|The "mixed anhydride" 1,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid occurs widely in metabolic pathways.
File:3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate.svg|3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) is a mixed anhydride of sulfuric and phosphoric acids and is the most common coenzyme in biological sulfate transfer reactions.
Acetic anhydride is a major industrial chemical widely used for preparing acetate esters, e.g. cellulose acetate. Maleic anhydride is the precursor to various by with styrene. Maleic anhydride is a dienophile in the Diels-Alder reaction.[Heimo Held, Alfred Rengstl, Dieter Mayer "Acetic Anhydride and Mixed Fatty Acid Anhydrides" Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. ]
Dianhydrides, molecules containing two acid anhydride functions, are used to synthesize and sometimes
Biological occurrence
Natural products containing acid anhydrides have been isolated from animals, bacteria and fungi.
Analogues
Nitrogen
are structurally related analogues, where the bridging oxygen is replaced by nitrogen. They are similarly formed by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with ammonia. The replacement of all oxygen atoms with nitrogen gives , these are a rare functional group which are very prone to hydrolysis.
Sulfur
Sulfur can replace oxygen, either in the carbonyl group or in the bridge. In the former case, the name of the acyl group is enclosed in parentheses to avoid ambiguity in the name,
See also
External links
